16. Unification of Germany

• The unification of Germany into a politically integrated nation state officially occurred on 18 January 1871 at the Versailles Palace's Hall of Mirrors in France.
• Like Italy, Germany was also divided into many states. At the end of Napoleonic Wars 1792-1815 there were 38 independent states in Germany.
• In 1815, the German states along with the Austria were organized into a Germanic confederation.
• Prussia was one of the most powerful states.

15. Unification of Italy: 1848-70

The Italian Unification or Italian Risorgimento is known as the chain of political and military events that produced a united Italian peninsula under the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. These events can be broken down in five stages:

14. French Revolution

The French Revolution began in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s with the ascent of Napoleon Bonaparte. During this period, French citizens razed and redesigned their country’s political landscape, uprooting centuries-old institutions such as absolute monarchy and the feudal system. Like the American Revolution before it, the French Revolution was influenced by Enlightenment ideals, particularly the concepts of popular sovereignty and inalienable rights. Although it failed to achieve all of its goals and at times degenerated into a chaotic bloodbath, the movement played a critical role in shaping modern nations by showing the world the power inherent in the will of the people.

13. American Revolution 1775 – 83 in Chronology

The American Revolution (1775-83) is also known as the American Revolutionary War and the U.S. War of Independence. The conflict arose from growing tensions between residents of Great Britain's 13 North American colonies and the colonial government, which represented the British crown. Skirmishes between British troops and colonial militiamen in Lexington and Concord in April 1775 kicked off the armed conflict, and by the following summer, the rebels were waging a full-scale war for their independence.

12. The Glorious Revolution in England: 1688 - 1689

Between 1688 and 1689, Parliament engineered the ouster of the legitimate male line of Stuart kings and imported a new Protestant king and queen:  William III and Mary II. 

Mary II was the Protestant daughter of James II from his first wife.  William was her husband. William of Orange was the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and the primary opponent of the French Catholic king Louis XIV.

11. Modern World – 1500 AD Onwards

•    The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the period roughly from the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe.
•    There is a consensus that the Renaissance began in Florence, Italy, in the 14th century.
•    The Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".
•    The word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century.

10. Medieval Japan

• Japan consists of four islands – Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku.
• The entire country was a single state till around 7th century AD.
• In the 8th century Edo, i.e. Kyoto became the capital and was seat of emperors of Japan for more than 1000 years. The real power was in the hands of aristocratic family.
• Shogun was one of the (usually) hereditary military dictators of Japan from 1192 to 1867. In this period, the shoguns, or their shikken regents (1203–1333), were the de facto rulers of Japan though they were nominally appointed by the emperor.

9. Medieval China

•    To prevent drain on the country’s wealth Sung ruler started the use of paper money.
•    The invention of gun powder happened in China in the 10th Century about 400 years before the knowledge reached the western world.
•    The Chinese made the iron chain suspension bridges as early as the 10 century.
•    The Chinese invented printing techniques in the 10th Century. The was as important as invention of paper.

8. Arab Civilization

•    In the 7th Century, Islam, a new religion arose in Arabia, this led to the establishment of big empire.
•    Muhammad, the prophet of Islam was born in Mecca in 571AD
•    At 40, Muhammad had ‘vision of truth’ and thus became the Prophet.
•    The vision of truth convinced him that Allah was only God.
•    He forbade the worship of idols and made many enemies. Ultimately he had leave Mecca and took refuse in Medina. This happened in 622 AD and years is termed as Hijira meaning migration and from it muslims date their era as Hijira Samvat.

7. Medieval World

The medieval era is generally defined as the period of European history from the fall of Rome (5th century) to the Renaissance (15th century). The Medieval era is often given only limited attention in histories of the West. In fact, the medieval era by far is the longest period of European history--spanning millennia.